Photovoltaic background, technology

The photovoltaic effect

This is the ability to transform solar energy into electricity and is achieved by using photovoltaic (PV) cells.
A PV cell (see Fig. P1 ) is capable of generating voltage of between 0.5 V and 2 V depending on the materials used and a current directly dependent on the surface area (5 or 6 inch cells).

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Fig. P1: Photovoltaic cell manufactured in a silicon plate (source: Photowatt)

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Its characteristics are shown in a current/voltage graph as shown in Figure P2.

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Fig. P2: Typical characteristic of a photovoltaic cell

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The photovoltaic effect is dependent on two physical values (see Fig. P3)

– irradiance and temperature:

• As irradiance E (Wm²) increases, so do the current and power produced by the cell
• As the temperature (T°) of the cell increases, the output voltage decreases significantly, the current increases only slightly, so overall the output power decreases.

In order to compare the performance of different cells, the standard has set out Standard Test Conditions (STC) for irradiance of 1000 W/m² at 25°C.

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Fig. P3: Irradiance and temperature influence the photovoltaic effect

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To make it easier to use energy generated by photovoltaic cells, manufacturers offer serial and/or parallel combinations grouped into panels or modules.

Photovoltaic modules

These combinations of cells (see Fig. P4) enable the voltage and current to be increased. To optimise the characteristics of the modules, these are made up of cells with similar electrical characteristics.

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Fig. P4: PW1400 photovoltaic module dimensions:1237 x 1082 x 45 mm (source: Photowatt)

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Each module providing a voltage of several tens of volts is classified by its power level measured in Watt peak (Wp).This relates to the power produced by a surface area of one m² exposed to irradiation of 1000 W/m² at 25°C. However, identical modules may produce different levels of power. Currently, the IEC standard specifies a power variation of ±3% (see table in Figure P5). Modules with typical power of 160 Wp include all modules with power of between 155 Wp (160 -3%) and 165 Wp (160 +3%).

It is therefore necessary to compare their efficiency which is calculated by dividing their power (W/m²) by 1000 W/m².

For example, for a module of 160 Wp with a surface area of 1.338m² (*), the peak power is 160/1.338 which gives 120 Wp/m².
Therefore the efficiency of this module is: 120/1000 = 12%.

Nota: Manufacturers may have different production tolerance limits according to local standards or habits (example: JISC8918 specifies ±10%), so it is recommended to always check product catalogues for actual tolerance values.

(*) The dimensions of these modules (L x W x D) in mm are: 1237 x 1082 x 38.

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Encapsulation	Glass/Tedlar
Cell size	125.50 x 125.5 mm
Number of cells	72
Voltage	24 V
Number of bypass diodes	4 bypass diodes
Typical power	150 Wp	160 Wp	170 Wp
Minimum power	145 Wp	155 Wp	165 Wp
Voltage at typical power	33.8 V	34.1 V	34.7 V
Current at typical power	4.45 A	4.7 A	4.9 A
Short circuit current	4.65 A	4.8 A	5.0 A
Open wire voltage	43 V	43.2 V	43.4 V
Maximum circuit voltage	1 000 V CC
Temperature coefficient	α = (dl/l)/dt # + 0.032 %/°C β = dV/dt # - 158 mV/°C ς P/P = - 0.43 %/°C
Power specifications at	1000 W/m²: 25°C: AM 1.5

Fig.P5: Electrical characteristics of a PW1400 module (source: Photowatt)

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However when photovoltaic cells are connected in series, a destructive phenomenon known as the “hot spot” may occur if one of the cells is partially shaded. This cell will operate as a receiver and the current passing through it may destroy it. To avoid this risk, manufacturers include bypass diodes which bypass damaged cells. Bypass diodes are usually fitted in the junction box behind the module and enable 18 to 22 cells to be shunted depending on the manufacturer.

These modules are then connected in series to achieve the level of voltage required, forming chains of modules or “strings”. Then the strings are arranged in parallel to achieve the required level of power, thus forming a PV array.

A faulty module within a string must be replaced by an identical module and therefore it is important to choose a supplier which is likely to be in business in the long-term.

Since there are increasing numbers of PV module manufacturers throughout the world, it is important to consider the various options carefully when choosing equipment. Installers should also:

• Ensure the compatibility of the electrical characteristics with the rest of the installation (inverter input voltage).
• Ensure that they are compliant with the standards.

• Select suppliers likely to be in business in the long-term to ensure that faulty modules can be replaced as these must be identical to those already installed.

This final point is important as installers are responsible for the warranty granted to their clients.

Different technologies are currently being used to manufacture photovoltaic generators. These are divided into two categories - crystalline modules and thin film modules.

Crystalline silicone modules

There are two main categories of crystalline silicon modules – mono-crystalline modules and multi-crystalline modules.
Mono-crystalline modules are currently best in terms of performance, with efficiency of 16 – 18%. They are also more expensive.
The efficiency of multi-crystalline modules is between 12 and 14%. They are more commonly used, especially in the residential and service sectors.
These modules have a service life of more than 20 years. They lose some of their power over time (< 1% per year) but continue to produce electricity. Depending on the look required, bi-glass modules are available with two plates of glass which make the module semi-transparent, or Tedlar or Teflon glass modules which are less expensive but completely opaque.

Thin film modules

Extensive research is currently being carried out on thin film modules and current efficiency levels of 6 to 8% should increase in coming years. They are cheap and suitable for large areas provided that the surface is not a valuable part of the facility.
This category of thin film modules includes a number of technologies of which there are 3 main types:

• a-Si – thin film or amorphous silicon
• CdTe (cadmium telluride)
• CIS (copper indium selenide)

It should be noted that at present we do not yet have 20 years’ experience of this type of technology and thus still do not know how these modules will age.
In their technical specifications, reputable manufacturers indicate initial and stabilised values.
The table in Figure P6 provides a comparative overview of all these technologies.

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Technologies	sc-Si mono-crystalline	mc-Si multi-crystalline	a-Si Thin film	CdTe Thin film	CIS Thin film
STC module efficiency
Maximum	19%	15%	8.5%	11%	11%
Maximum	14%	13%	6%	8%	8%
Relative cost ($/Wp)	3	3	2	1	1
Temperature coefficient at the power peak (%/°C)	-0.3 / -0.5	0.3 / -0.5	-0.2	-0.2	-0.3

Fig. P6: Comparison of technologies used in photovoltaic generators

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Inverters

These devices which convert direct current into alternating current are special inverters for photovoltaic power supply (see Fig. P7a). Different types of photovoltaic inverters or “PV inverters” are available. They fulfil three main functions:

• Inverter function: Converts direct current into alternating current in the form required (sinusoidal, square, etc.)
• MPPT function: Calculates the operating point on the photovoltaic surface or array which produces the most power in terms of voltage and current - also known as the Maximum Power Point Tracker (see Fig. P7b).
• Automatic disconnection from the network function: Automatically commands the inverter to switch off and the system to disconnect from the network in the absence of voltage on the electrical network. This protects the inverter and any maintenance staff who may be working on the network.

Fig. P7a: Conext Core XC inverter specially designed for photovoltaic power supply (Source: Schneider Electric)

Therefore, in the event of a network failure, the inverter no longer supplies energy to the network and energy produced by the photovoltaic modules is wasted. “Grid interactive” systems are nevertheless available which function in back-up mode. Batteries need to be installed for these systems as well as an additional control panel to ensure that the network is disconnected before supplying their own energy.

Different models

Some “multi-MPPT” inverters have a double (or triple, quadruple, etc.) MPPT function. This function enables PV supply to be optimised when the array includes strings facing in different directions. There is however a risk of total loss of supply if one inverter is faulty.
Nevertheless, it is possible to install one less powerful inverter per string, which is a more expensive solution but increases the overall reliability of the system.
“Multi-string inverters” are also available. These inverters are not necessarily multi-MPPT as described above. The name simply indicates that several strings can be connected to the inverter and that they are paralleled inside the inverter.

Fig. P7b: Operating point of a photovoltaic array which produces the most power, also known as the Maximum Power Point Tracker

European efficiency

In order to compare the various appliances, a level of efficiency has been determined based on different operating points, simulating the average daily performance of an inverter. This “European efficiency” is calculated using the following formula:
0.03 x (η 5%) + 0.06 x (η 10%) + 0.13 x (η 20%) + 0.1 x (η 30%) + 0.48 x (η 50%) + 0.2 x (η 100%)

IP and operating temperature

We strongly advise against installing an inverter in a place exposed to the sun as this will considerably reduce its service life.

Ingress protection and temperature parameters are important when choosing an inverter.
Almost all manufacturers of inverters offer IP65 inverters which can be installed outdoors. However, this does not mean that they should be installed in full sunlight as most inverters operate in degraded mode in temperatures over 40°C (50°C for Xantrex inverters manufactured by Schneider Electric) and thus output power is reduced.
Installing inverters outdoors in full sunlight also incurs the risk of premature aging of some of the inverter’s components such as the chemical condensers. This considerably reduces the inverter’s service life from 10 years to as few as 5 years!

Connections

Photovoltaic installations require special cables and connectors. Since modules are installed outdoors they are subjected to climatic constraints associated with high voltages caused by the installation of modules in series.
Besides being ingress protected, the equipment used must also be resistant to UV rays and ozone. It must furthermore display a high level of mechanical resistance and a high level of resistance to extreme variations in temperature.

Câbles

The voltage drop between the PV array and the inverter must be calculated and this must not exceed 3% for nominal current (UTE recommendation: 1%).
The DC cables used should be double-insulated single wire cables and since these are not standardised, cables indicated by the manufacturer as being specifically for PV should be used.

Connectors

In general, photovoltaic modules are supplied with two cables equipped with one male and one female connector. Using these cables, it is possible to connect two modules installed side by side, thus creating a series without any difficulties. The male connector connects to the female connector of the following module and so on until the required level of direct current is attained.
These special connectors including the Multi-Contact MC3 or MC4 with locking systems offer protection if touched while they are disconnected. This protection is necessary since as soon as a photovoltaic module is exposed to irradiation, it supplies voltage. If the cables connecting the modules are handled (to alter or extend them) they must either first be disconnected or the DC isolator for the DC circuit must be activated at the input to the connection box.
It is also possible to use different connectors available on the market. These should be chosen carefully for their quality, contact and male-female mating to avoid any poor contact which may lead to overheating and destruction.

Battery chargers

In remote locations, batteries need to be charged to supply energy after sunset. There are two types of chargers:

• Current chargers – the voltage of the PV array must be the same as the charge voltage of the battery and is regulated in terms of current.
• MPPT chargers – these chargers operate at the maximum power point. They manage the charge of the battery, limit the current and voltage, and control floating.

This type of charger is more expensive than the type mentioned above but allows an optimal number of PV modules to be installed and reduces the overall cost of the installation.

Off grid or grid connected

Off grid installation

Historically, these were the first places in which photovoltaic systems were used, supplying telecommunication relay stations or remote settlements which were difficult to access and could not be connected to the network.
They remain one of the only means of supplying electricity to 2 billion people who currently do not have access to it.
In order to size these installations correctly, it is first necessary to identify the load curve required and the number of days where the installation will not be exposed to sunlight in order to identify how much energy needs to be stored in the batteries. This information is used to determine the size and type of batteries required.
Then, the surface area of the photovoltaic sensors must be calculated to ensure that the batteries can be recharged in the worst case scenario (shortest day of the year).

Specific issues

This method entails over-sizing the system to ensure continuity once or twice a year. As a result, this type of installation is very expensive!
It should be noted that according to the EPIA (European Photovoltaic Industry Association) this type of installation will account for 20% of the photovoltaic market in 2012 and 40% in 2030.

Storage

Storage is crucial to this type of installation.
Several types of batteries are available:

• Lead batteries

These batteries operate in cycles (charge/discharge). Open batteries are recommended to prevent inflating which may occur due to excessively rapid charging and large emissions of hydrogen.
Their purchase price is certainly their main advantage although they have short service lives. This is influenced by the depth of discharging but they last no more than 2 or 3 years at a discharging rate of 50% and above. Furthermore, deep discharging may “kill” the battery. Therefore, when operating such equipment at a remote site, the batteries should be changed on a regular basis to maintain their charging performance.

• Ni-Cd or Nickel Cadmium batteries

These batteries have the advantage of being much less sensitive to extreme temperature conditions and deep charging or discharging. They have a much longer service life (5 to 8 years) but are more expensive to purchase. However, the cost of the Wh stored over the service life of the installation is lower than that of lead batteries.

• Li-ion batteries

These are the batteries of the future for these types of operations. They are insensitive to deep discharging and have a service life of up to 20 years. At present, they are prohibitively expensive but prices are set to fall by 2012 with the start of mass production. They will therefore become the most economic variety for this type of usage.

Grid Connected installation

Owners of power generation systems connected to the grid have 2 options:

• Sell all the power they produce (option known as “total sale”). For this option, a separate connection must be established to the network, apart from the connection for consumption. This also requires an administrative declaration.
• Use the power they produce locally as required and only sell the excess (option known as “sale of excess”) which has two benefits:

   - The difference in the rates payable by the producer (purchase) and the consumer (sale)
   - It is not necessary to establish a new connection which may be expensive and requires an administrative declaration.
Since different rates are charged, a profitability analysis should be carried out to choose the best option.

Installations connected to the grid – 3 important points

The following points are important to note with regard to installations connected to the network:

• In contrast to independent installations, no correlation is required between consumption for the building and output.

For the “total sale” option, the two elements are completely independent.
For the “sale of excess” option, the network will compensate when production does not cover consumption.

• The network must be present in order to supply and sell energy. Furthermore, energy distributors require automatic disconnection systems to be in place in case of incidents on the network. When activated, these stop supply and therefore sales. Reconnection occurs automatically when the network returns to its nominal operating conditions.
• As a general rule, no provision is made for local storage using batteries or other means. This is true for mainland France where there is a high quality network with the capacity to absorb all the energy produced.

However, the system does have one fault. If the network fails, owners of installations who are also generally consumers are left with a power generation facility which they cannot use (see previous point). In countries or towns with frequent network incidents, systems are being developed which include batteries.